
The Spiritual and Cultural Heritage
of
Kosovo and Metohia
In
the long course of its existence, Serbian art, in the Kosovo region,
reached its peak in the first half of the 14th century. A limited selection
of buildings has been made here, most of which date to that period,
with the aim of representing the chief stylistic currents and outlining
the complexity of ideas on which their sophisticated sculptural decoration
and painting rely. These shrines especially exemplify the character
of artwork in surroundings exposed to simultaneous influences of Byzantium
and the West. In political life, this ancient duality was displayed
in the existence of two Serbian lands, Raska and Dioclea (Zeta), which
from the second half of the 12th century onwards permanently united
their destiny into one state. In art, these dual concepts became clearly
manifested as early as the era of the state founder, the Grand zupan
Stefan Nemanja. The churches he raised articulated, on the one hand,
characteristic features of Byzantine architectural skill, even of Constantinople
masters (in all probability, St. Nicholas in Toplica), while, on the
other, of Romanesque style, notable in the articulation of the marble
facades and the outstanding sculpted ornamentation on the church of
the Virgin in Studenica, a level of artistic achievement which was never
to be attained in later years.

The Patriarchate of Pec 13-14th century
During the 13th century, the Raska school of architecture produced churches
of monumental dimensions and harmonious proportions, but, in terms of
sculptural decoration, the simple features of their outward appearances
were modestly executed in the western spirit. Elements of plastic ornamentation
hardly appeared on them; the church of the Holy Apostles in Pec - for
a long time the only surviving church in Kosovo invested with some importance,
did not have them either. Hence, it certainly is no coincidence that
no major sculptural works, typical of the towns in Dalmatia, came into
existence along the southern Adriatic coast in this period.
The wife of Uros I, Queen Helen, of French descent provided a powerful
inspiration for architecture in the western spirit. When she supervised
the building of the monastery of Gradac on the river Ibar around 1270,
she engaged master-masons who were the first to make more extensive
use of Gothic elements in construction. In the modulation of portals
and windows on the main church they incorporated the appropriate sculptural
repertoire. At a later time in the coastal region where she ruled after
the death of her husband, Queen Helen had an Orthodox church built in
the vicinity of Scutary and dedicated to St. Nicholas. She also aided
the construction of a much greater number of Catholic places of worship,
giving support to members of the order of St. Francis. Early sources
reveal that in 1288 she consecrated Franciscan churches in monasteries
in Kotor, Bar, Ulcinj and Scutary which echoed the characteristic appearance
of religious buildings of the Umbrian-Tuscan type, with a simple, elongated
space that could accommodate a large number of believers.
These ambitious ventures of Queen Helen were also aided by her sons.
A well-preserved inscription from 1290 states that with kings Dragutin
and Milutin she had the church of SS Sergios and Bakchos built near
Scutary on the bank of the Bojana; this church was subsequently worn
away by the river. With her sons dressed in royal robes and herself
clad in monastic attire she is depicted praying to St. Nicholas who
blesses her in the famous icon of SS Peter and Paul which she presented
to their church in Rome.

The tomb of Archbishop Daniel - 14th century, Pec
Despite the fact that she had assumed the Orthodox monastic habit, the
Dowager - Queen lavishly aided monasteries of her earlier religious
denomination. Milutin did the same at a later time: an inscription from
1318 relates to his merits, probably in the renewal of the Benedictine
church near Scutary. By protecting his Catholic subjects, the king evidently
adhered to the practice of religious tolerance cherished in his country.
Of buildings erected by Catholic, not to speak of Orthodox, inhabitants
of mining settlements for their religious needs, examples worthy of
attention are the fragments still standing of a church dedicated to
the Virgin in Novo Brdo, and of St. Peter's in Stari Trg in Trepca the
former, like Decani and churches along the coastal region, was built
of alternate layers of red and white stone, while the base of the latter
church, three-aisled with semi-circular apses on the east side, indicates
that its central part was domed as were cathedrals in Kotor and Dubrovnik
(before the great earthquake in 1667). Hence, each in its own way -
i.e. in terms of construction method, dome design - was associated with
Orthodox architecture in Kosovo.
Revived architectural activity in coastal towns was most certainly connected
with their masters' engagement in building projects in Kosovo. Their
role was especially conspicuous in the erection of sepulchral churches.
It was perceivable, in some details at least, in other structures as
well, even those which were typical specimens of the new, Byzantine
style. Artists arrived here travelling along the valley of the Drim
River, by the road linking Prizren directly with the region of Scutary
and further on, by land and by sea, with other towns along the Adriatic
coast.

The royal family with the Archbishop and St. Sava -
Pec, 14th century
Masters from Byzantine workshops came at invitation from rulers from
the northern lands of the Empire, and with local artists they fostered
a style which was to become typical for Serbian surroundings, particularly
in terms of fresco-painting. Painting belonged to the inviolable sphere
of Orthodox art, within which no concessions were made in Serbia. The
complete and absolute acceptance of its iconographic expression, connected
with growing religious needs, rendered it possible for masters from
local workshops, skillful and experienced, to respond to the high requirements
posed by the court. Before becoming king, Stefan Decanski had ruled
over Zeta for some time, and there he had become acquainted with the
Mediterranean ambience and the spirit of Western art. After that, under
the Byzantine Emperor's surveillance, he spent seven years in his capital
whose edifices - erected in the course of its thousand-year history
- must have impressed him deeply not only by their size and manner of
construction, but also by the opulence of their interiors. His intimate
knowledge of ancient places of worship and the ruler's court must have
also had an impact on Dusan, who, as a boy, sharing the fate of banishment
with his father, acquired his education in Constantinople. It is not
simple nowadays to assess the contribution of local artists working
either alone in the same spirit, or with masters educated in centers
where stylistic expression was constantly changing and representations
were gradually becoming an increasingly complex manifestation of theological
interpretation.
In medieval Serbia within its narrower borders - preceding Stefan Dusan's
conquests - the character of painting displayed fewer differences in
comparison to the leading stylistic currents in the Byzantine Empire
than was the case in some of its other regions with their own local
traditions. The reason for this is simple. Serbian rulers and the high
clergy, in constant and close touch with larger cities, especially Thessalonica,
invariably summoned from their workshops the best artists who represented
the latest trends in art and, moreover, directly participated in its
transformation. In this connection, it is but sufficient to examine
the ascent of wall-painting in the last decade of King Milutin's rule
(+1321): frescoes adorning the walls of all the ruler's endowments dating
from this period are the creation of the renowned painters from Thessalonica,
Michael Astrapas and Eutychios, or the masters from a very close artistic
circle. The uncertainty of experts as to whether the frescoes bearing
no surviving signatures should be attributed to these Thessalonian artists,
known by names, confirms in the best possible manner the unity of spirit
and the recognizable kinship of expression, which from the end of the
13th century could be followed from Mt Athos, through Ohrid, to Pec,
Prizren and Gracanica.

the fresco of the Lord, Prizren 14th century
Gracanica Monasterey - 14th century
Local artists who
worked with famous foreign masters left no information about themselves,
nor did the specific features of their creations distinguish them even
at a later time when their participation was confirmed by signatures.
A telling instance of this is the case of two great painters from the
end of the 14th and the beginning of the 15th centuries, Metropolitan
Jovan and his brother Makarije, famous for their works in Pelagonija,
and in Serbia, in the Morava basin. Their creations, not only in terms
of value, but also in style, closely resembled those produced by the
most significant masters of that epoch, whose similar works are encountered
even in faraway Cyprus.
In the epoch of Stefan Decanski and Dusan, the painting heritage of
the first decades of the 14th century was evolved by domestic artists,
engaged in the construction of both large and small sized churches in
Serbia. This is best perceived in the painting of the spacious church
of Christ Pantocrator in Decani which took ten years to complete. Several
groups of artists gathered there They readily responded to the challenge
posed by the complex and, in terms of volume, the richest subject-matter
in the Byzantine world. The value of their work was in no way inferior
to that of artists coming from other corners of the Empire. The remains
of frescoes in the formerly grand Holy Archangels, only several years
younger than Decani, show the hand of the same or related painters;
a similar manner of work has been discerned in other churches as well.
Furthermore, direct analogies of the large fresco-sequences could not
be found in Byzantium at that time; nether s t possible, as it is in
the time of King Milutin, to determine their roots in the centers m
which they had been previously noted. Financial wealth and increasing
requirements obviously brought about the rise of local workshops. These
workshops, like others all over the East-Christian world, were, understandably,
always in touch with life in the capital and other towns of the Empire.

Icon of St. Nicholas 16th century, Velika Hoca
In large enterprises, apart from the participation of local artists,
a significant role belonged to the leading personalities of the Serbian
church, educated and widely cultured. Their involvement in the erection
and adornment of monuments is revealed by documents, primarily endowment
charters, as well as writings belonging to different literary genres.
It was noticeable not only in the making of decisions concerning the
appearance of a structure, the choice of artists and iconography, but
also m the process of finding the most appropriate articulation for
ecclessiastical and political ideas. The multitude of historical compositions
and effigies of members of the ruling house, the nobility, high clergy
and monks, most frequently in the role of founders, reflects the life
and understanding of medieval Serbian society. The inscriptions accompanying
them accurately record the historical moment and disclose the ambitions
of the sovereign, sometimes of a short duration m a changing political
reality. In that, painters, even those who came from other countries,
displayed a developed sense of careful attention to the spirit of the
artistic environment and the requests of those who commissioned the
work. In that aspect, the shrines in Kosovo have preserved the wealth
of their uniqueness. In contrast to representations of saints whose
images were entrenched in traditional Orthodox iconography, historical
portraits, especially those of men, portrayed the person's original
facial features in the majority of cases, meticulously registering the
character of their clothes and attributes of their social status. St.
Symeon and St. Sava, the founders of the autonomous state and church,
were regular features on frescoes, as were expressions of complex state
and legal ideas, the emphasis always being placed on the divine origin
of rule.

The church of the Christ Saviour - Prizren, 14th century
The representations of founders took a special place in churches which
they raised for their eternal rest. In Kosovo, however, such images
have survived only in Decani, in a number not registered elsewhere:
the first ktetor, Stefan Decanski, got four, and the second, Dusan,
even five portraits, each in a different iconographic version, invested
with a special message. The lost depictions of King Milutin in Banjska,
and of Dusan in the Holy Archangels, were undoubtedly particular paraphrases
of the same ideas. The latter, as it has been shown, had two - in Serbian
art unique - ruling portraits carved in stone, above the entrance to
the church and over the tomb itself.
Serbian kings of the first half of the 14th century entrusted the design
and construction of their large shrines, the carving of stonework and
the painting of frescoes in spacious interiors, to masters from provincial
workshops, as well as to those from the coastal regions and Byzantine
towns, depending on the character of the work and available artistic
support. In the free selection of artistic forms, open to western concepts
for the outer appearance of churches, they satisfied the requirements
of the Orthodox rite in the disposition and function of spatial elements,
preserving with consistency the appropriate character of wall-paintings
and icons. The faithful in the Middle Ages admired such churches, but
did not marvel at them: they were the expression of a specific and exciting
- only for the present-day observer unexpected - synthesis that was
the natural outcome of cultural circumstances and vital artistic practice.
This vitality was felt in the works of the masters from other branches
of art. Take, for instance, the handiwork of goldsmiths who fashioned
"holy vessels" for the needs of the East-Christian cult, while
decorating them with ornaments from the repertoire of western art, just
as masters in that same period carve Byzantine and Romanesque (or Gothic)
embellishments on the portals and windows of the churches before them.

A fresco from Gracanica Monastery - 14th century
A considerable number
of feudal and town churches were erected in a more modest spirit within
simpler forms. Only the rudimentary facts about them have been outlined
in the appendix. Neither does this list offer a balanced testimony to
their number and disposition. Those churches in towns whose remains
have been insufficiently investigated, to a large extent have yet to
be analyized. One need only to compare their number in towns like Ohrid,
Kastoria or Verroia, which preserve their early nuclei throughout Turkish
rule, or, at least, have surviving data about Christian structures in
the defters (censuses), to project how many of them may have existed
in the prosperous centers in Kosovo, with wealthy mine owners or lessees,
master craftsmen, merchants and artisans. It has already been stated
that, apart from the local population, these places were also inhabited
by "foreigners," whose social and legal status was established
by law, and implied, among other things, ownership rights, exemption
from certain taxes, etc. There were many citizens from Dubrovnik, Venice
and Genoa among them. In addition, the mines attracted Albanians whose
arrival was prompted by the expansion of the medieval Serbian state
into territory to the south of Scutary.
The growing exploitation of mineral riches in Serbia and Bosnia gathered
momentum from the mid-14th century since mines in Europe were being
exhausted. Thus, around Novo Brdo and Janjevo where silver mixed with
gold was being excavated, as well as Trepca and elsewhere, tales spread
about the rich deposits. The wealth was enormous. Archival data disclose
that one fifth of the total European production of silver was exported
from Serbia and Bosnia only via Dubrovnik.
No churches have survived in medieval fortified towns with suburbs,
or in marketplaces where, sometimes several times a year, fairs were
held on particular feast-days when merchants from afar assembled offering
commodities to the local population. In the last century of independence,
however, no further monumental churches followed the completion of the
Holy Archangels. With the revenues continually yielded by the mines,
churches were built in the north, chiefly in the Morava River basin
where the center of the state moved under the rule of Prince Lazar and
his heirs. The monasteries on Mt. Athos were also lavishly furnished
with gifts of silver. The quantities of this precious metal were expressed
in characteristic liters or ounces, not in the currency unit in circulation
at the time.

The Ascension of the Lord - Decani 14th century
On the other hand,
Pec, with "the throne of St. Sava," remained the heart of
Kosovo spiritual life. The Church viewed Prince Lazar (1371-1389) as
rightful heir to the Nemanjics and bearer of sovereignty over all Serbian
lands, as expressed in his title and the manner in which he was addressed
by state representatives and ecclesiastical dignitaries from other countries.
The reestablishment of canonic relations with Constantinople, interrupted
because of the conflict brought about by Stefan Dusan's proclamation
as emperor and the elevation of the Serbian Archbishop to the rank of
Patriarch, was of utmost importance both for the political position
of the country and the peaceful existence of the Serbian church. These
important issues were discussed at councils in Pec summoned at Prince
Lazar's initiative. Through the mediation of Athonite monks, an agreement
acceptable to both churches was reached, and above the grave of the
Emperor Dusan in the Holy Archangels in Prizren, in 1375, the decision
of reconciliation was proclaimed in the presence of envoys from the
Patriarchate of Constantinople. After that, the Prince commenced the
construction of his large monastery of Ravanica, to which his body was
transferred, first buried in Pristina after his death, a year after
the battle of Kosovo (1389). The disturbances and pressures that forced
Lazar's widow and son, the young prince, to recognize the Sultan's authority
as vassals, left traces on the grand endowments of the Nemanjics. In
1377, Princess Milica paid a visit to Decani and, as stated in her granting
charter, came across "a genuinely pitiful sight": the monastery
was burned down and devastated by "the vile Ismailite people."
She restored to the monastery the estates that had been taken from it
and conferred upon it several of her own; she also renovated the bronze
polycandilion dating from the time of church construction, the largest
surviving specimen of its kind in the Byzantine world. A wide, circular
ring, held by twenty-meter-long "chains," suspended on the
base of the dome, illuminated the interior during evening prayers with
dozens of candles and hanging lights. Its parts - all together, there
were around 600 - had perforated ornaments, and in the circles with
decoratively linked letters, as was the custom, was the name of its
founder: Stefan the King. The Princess, at that time the nun Eugenia,
commissioned a similar piece to record the memory of her sons, Stefan
and Vukan and herself in the same manner. At a later time, popular tradition
concocted the legend that the choros had been forged out of the weapons
of the warriors fallen in the battle of Kosovo.

DECANI MONASTERY in festal lights
Until the final conquest by the Ottomans in 1455, modest-sized churches
whose founders and time of construction are, in the main, unknown, continued
to be built in towns, on feudal estates and monastic metochia. In the
long centuries of Turkish rule, people gathered in these ecclesiastical
buildings collecting contributions in order to restore them, protect
them from demolition, and re-paint the frescoes, or, at least, replace
damaged ones, adorn interiors with icons and furnish them with liturgical
vessels. With the passage of time, however, as the religious and ethnic
structure of the population has changed, these efforts have decreased.
The overall survey of hundreds of Christian places of worship - although
itself incomplete attests to lively religious life and the character
of the environment over the course of centuries. Their density and disposition
is shown on the map in the appendix. Several large structures that supplement
this picture have, fortunately, survived. The most significant of them,
as regards its influence and role in the organization of spiritual life
and the preservation of national consciousness, was the Patriarchate
of Pec - until the fortunes of war turned against the Austrian general
Piccolomini whose campaign had won support of the Serbian people in
Kosovo. Fearing retribution, they were compelled to move into regions
across the Sava and the Danube (1690).

St. Symeon Nemanja - Holy Virgin of Ljevis, Prizren
14th century
Post scriptum
The first decades of the 18th century mark the beginning of the withdrawal
of the Ottoman Empire. The authorities moderated the position towards
their subjects of other religions and after the first Serbian.uprising
(1804-1812) they were forced to accept the demands of the Great Powers,
especially Russia, to protect the Christian population in the Balkans.
Although after the Berlin Congress (1878) Turkey gave preference to
islamized immigrant clans as a protection against Serbia and Montenegro
who were preparing to liberate their people, the Sultan's regular army
had to safeguard the monasteries in Kosovo against inroads and plunders
of highlanders who descended into fertile plains. In Decani, Devic and
the Patriarchate of Pec there were garrisons of Turkish askers that
fraternities provided with board and lodging, just as they were paid
by the "hereditary chieftains" from certain Albanian clans
to defend them.
In 1912, when Serbia and Montenegro finally liberated Kosovo, Metohija
and the entire territory of Old Serbia, NOT A SINGLE Islamic shrine
was demolished or desecrated - not the Bajrakli Mosque in Prizren, the
Imperial (Fetih) Mosque in Pristina, the Hadum-Mosque in Djakovica,
or Murad's Turbeh on the field of Kosovo in which an icon lamp burns
today on the site where Sultan Murad I was killed. Nor have any of the
residences, towers or structures of historic import suffered, the best
confirmation of this claim being the Sinan Pasha Mosque in Prizren,
built exclusively with stones and fragments of architectural decoration
brought from the Holy Archangels; the Orthodox population and the authorities
of the Kingdom of Serbia did not allow their demolition. "A ruined
shrine is still a holy place" - states a notice from that period
- "and to demolish a place of worship that has become a shrine
of another faith amounts to commiting an evil deed. Revenge is contrary
to God's justice, always more pressing and attainable than human."
During World War II when the territories of Kosovo and Metohija were
an Italian protectorate the local Albanian authorities attempted to
demolish the memorial church in Djakovica along with the charnel-house
of Serbian soldiers fallen in 1915. This act was prevented by the Italian
military command. After the war, in 1950, the church - charnel-house
was nevertheless pulled down by the local government on the basis of
a petition with signatures extorted from local Serbs, chiefly members
of the Communist party. At the same time, none of the 18 mosques and
12 tekias in Djakovica were touched. Such an act encouraged attempts
to devastate Devic, damage Decani and desecrate Gracanica and the Hermitage
of St. Peter of Korisa. Finally, under circumstances which were never
officially explained, on 16 May 1981, the large dormitory of the Pec
Patriarchate burned to the ground.
In our times, the shrines in Kosovo continue to hold the attention of
historians, art historians, archaeologists and conservators. A considerable
number of them have been protected, and the work undertaken has brought
to light new and valuable discoveries. The future of these culturally
significant enterprises will depend on elementary living conditions
and a readiness to put into effect international obligations contained
in the convention on the protection of world cultural heritage adopted
at the United Nations Conference held in Vancouver in 1976. Article
no 9 reads as follows: "The right of each country is to be, with
full sovereignty, the inheritor of its own cultural values which are
the fruit of its history, and it is its duty to treasure them as values
representing an inseparable part of the cultural heritage of mankind."
Introduction
to the History of Kosovo and Metohia
The Art
of Decani Monastery
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The church of St. Nicholas, Bogosevac (nr. Prizren),
14th century
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